Human Philosophical Reflections 2: Knowledge, Intelligence, Affection, and Freedom

1. Pengetahuan

Pengetahuan adalah berbagai gejala yang ditemui dan diperoleh manusia melalui pengamatan akal. Pengetahuan muncul ketika seseorang menggunakan akal budinya untuk mengenali benda atau kejadian tertentu yang belum pernah dilihat atau dirasakan sebelumnya. Misalnya ketika seseorang mencicipi masakan yang baru dikenalnya, ia akan mendapatkan pengetahuan tentang bentuk, rasa, dan aroma masakan tersebut.

 

• Pengetahuan indrawi lahir atau indrawi luar adalah saat orang mencapainya langsung contohnyapenglihatan, pendengaran, penciuman, perasaan, sertaperaba.

• Pengetahuan indrawi batin ketika menampakkan dirinya kepada orang dengan ingatan dan khayalan, baikmengenai apa yang tidak ada lagi atau yang belum pernahada maupun yang terdapat di luar jangkauannya

Ada beberapa jenis pengetahuan seperti ;

• perseptif,muncul secara spontan,memungkinkanorang untuk menyesuaikan dirinya secara langsung dengansituasi yang ada.Pengetahuan dalam arti ini lebihmenyatakan dirinya melalui gerakan tangan,tingkahlaku,gerakan,sikap,tindakan,daripada dengan perkataanyang dipikirkan atau dengan keterangan yang jelas 

• refleksif,ketika pengetahuan itu membuatobjektif kodrat dari suatu realitas apa pun juga. Pengungkapannya adalah baik dalam bentuk ide, konsep, definisi, serta putusan-putusan maupun dalam bentuklambang, mitos, atau karya-karya seni.

• diskursif, ketika pengetahuan itu memperhatikansuatu aspek dari benda kemudian suatu aspek yang lain, ketika pengetahuan itu pergi dan datang dari keseluruhanke bagian-bagian, dan dari bagian-bagian kekeseluruhan.Pengetahuan dalam arti ini lebih menampakkandiri sebagai sesuatu yang datang dari sebab ke akibat dandari akibat ke sebab, dari prinsip ke konsekuensi dandari konsekuensi ke prinsip, dan sebagainya 

• intuitif, ketika pengetahuan menangkap ataumemahami secara langsung benda atau situasi dalam salahsatu aspeknya, keseluruhan dalam satu bagian, sebab dalamakibat, konsekuensi dalam prinsip, dan sebagainya.
•         Pengetahuan itu induktif, bila menarik yang universal dariyang individual, dan sebaliknya deduktif,bila menarik yang individual dari yang universal. 
•         Pengetahuan itu kontemplatif, bila mempertimbangkan benda benda dalam dirinya dan untukdirinya sendiri. 
•         Pengetahuan itu disebut spekulatif, bila mempertimbangkan benda-benda dalam bayangan-bayangan dan ide-ide, atau konsep-konsep tentang benda-benda itu. 

2.Intelligence 

2.1 Pengertian 

Istilah Inteligensi diambil dari kata intellectus dan kata kerja intellegere (bahasa Latin). Kata intellegere terdiri dari kata intus yang artinya dalam pikiran atau akal, dan kata legere yang berarti membaca atau menangkap. Kataintellegere dengan ini berarti membaca dalam pikiran atau akal segala hal dan menangkap artinya yang dalam.Menjadi inteligen berarti menangkap apa yang fundamental pada jenis ini atau macam ada yang itu, berarti menangkap apa yang esensial dari suatu gejala. melihat apa yang hakiki dalam kegiatan ini atau itu (menambah. mengurangi, mengalihkan, atau membagi). 

2.2 Penjelasan

Inteligensi adalah kegiatan dari suatu organisme dalam menyesuaikan diri dengan situasi-situasi, dengan menggunakan kombinasi fungsi-fungsi seperti persepsi, ingatan, konseptual, abstraksi, imajinasi, atensi, konsentrasi. seleksi relasi, rencana, ekstrapolasi, prediksi, kontrol (pengendalian), memilih, mengarahkan. Berbeda dengan naluri, kebiasaan, adat istiadat, hafalan tanpa mempergunakan pikiran, tradisi. 

Pada tingkat intelek (pemahaman) yang lebih tinggi, inteligensi juga dapat diartikan sebagai proses pemecahan masalah-masalah (soal-soal kebingungan) dengan penggunaan pemikiran abstrak. Tingkat-tingkat inteligensi yang lebih tinggi berisi unsur-unsur seperti simbolisasi dan komunikasi pemikir­an abstrak, analisis kritis, dan rekonstruksi untuk diterapkan pada kemungkinan-kemungkinan lebih lanjut dan/atau pada situasi-situasi yang terkait, entah praktis atau teoretis (Lorens Bagus, 1996: 359). Demikianlah, hal-hal yang berada pada tiap-tiap tahap perkembangan pengetahuan intelektif tidak dapat dipandang sebagai keseluruhan inteligensi itu sendiri.

3.Affection

3.1 Pengertian

Afektivitas bera kognisi, konasi, afeksi yaitu trias dinamika manusia. Maka untuk menciptakan kondisi dimana subjek akan melahirkan kegiatan afektif dengan cara: (a)Subjek dan objek harus terdapat ikatan. (b) Jika objek memiliki nilai maka subjek sendiri memiliki kegiatan (baik dan buruk).(c) untuk melakukan sebuah afektif perlu adanya dorongan agar menimbulkan afektif.(d) mengenal subjek dan berusaha mendefinisikan objek tersebut. (e) imajinasi juga sebagai pndorong dan semangat bahkan bisa mempengaruhi adanya kebohongan.

4.Freedom (kebebasan)

Kebebasan sendiri tidak dapat dipisahkan oleh diri manusia sendiri, serta kebebasa bersifat rapuh dan sensitif namun manusia tetap harus memperjuangkan kebebasannya. Kebebasan pada jaman sekarang lebih berarti untuk mengaktualkan diri atau mengevaluasi diri. Atau lebih mudahnya manusia dapat melakukan sesuatu hal melalui kemauan dirinya sendiri tanpa adanya paksaan.

Freedom is self-determination yaitu suatu sifat atau cirik khas perbuatan yag dilakukan oleh manusianya. Kemampuan memilih karena manusia merupakan tuan untuk kemampuannya sendiri. Menurut Louis Leahy kebebasan moral berbeda dengan kebebasan psikologis namun keduanya memiliki hubungan yang sangat erat.

 

Refrence : 

Bahan disarikan dari binus maya pertemuan ke 5 :

“Human Philosophical Reflections 2: Knowledge, Intelligence, Affection, and Freedom”

Human Philosophical Reflections 1: Greece and Rome Philosophy, Changing Concepts of the Body, and the Games

Picture 1. Mechikoff & Estes, A History and Philosophy of Sport and Physical Education, Fourth Edition © 2006, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Philosophical Positions: The Body

Dualism

•        Explanation of human existence based upon both metaphysical and theological beliefs
•        Socrates and Plato
•        Has profound implications for physical education
•        Separates human existence into two parts, mind and body.

Greek Influence

• Greeks developed much of the Western world’s belief about the body and physical education
• Likely with Judaic and Phoenician influences
• Two metaphysical systems in Greece
• Naturalistic: man’s nature is both spiritual and corporeal (physical)
• Achieving balance is desired
• Emphasized physical and intellectual education

Phonology

Across its history, the syllabic structure of Greek has varied little: Greek shows a mixed syllable structure, permitting complex syllabic onsets but very restricted codas. It has only oral vowels and a fairly stable set of consonantal contrasts. The main phonological changes occurred during the Hellenistic and Roman period (see Koine Greek phonology for details) and included:
* replacement of the pitch accent with a Stress (linguistics)|stress accent.
* simplification of the system of vowels and diphthongs: loss of vowel length distinction, monophthongization of most diphthongs, and several steps in a chain shift of vowels towards /i/ (iotacism).
* development of the Voicelessness voiceless Aspirated consonant|aspirated Stop consonant|plosives {{IPA|/pʰ/}} and {{IPA|/tʰ/}} to the voiceless Fricative consonant|fricatives {{IPA|/f/}} and {{IPA|/θ/}}, respectively; the similar development of {{IPA|/kʰ/}} to {{IPA|/x/}} may have taken place later (these phonological changes are not reflected in the orthography: both the earlier and later phonemes are written with Phi (letter)|φ, Theta|θ, and Chi (letter)|χ).
* development of the Voice (phonetics)|voiced plosives {{IPA|/b/}}, {{IPA|/d/}}, and {{IPA|/ɡ/}} to their voiced fricative counterparts {{IPA|/β/}} (later /v/), {{IPA|/ð/}}, and {{IPA|/ɣ/}}.

Morphology

In all its stages, the morphology of Greek shows an extensive set of productive derivational affixes, a limited but productive system of compounding, and a rich inflectional system. Although its morphological categories have been fairly stable over time, morphological changes are present throughout, particularly in the nominal and verbal systems. The major change in the nominal morphology since the classical stage was the disuse of the dative case (its functions being largely taken over by the genitive). The verbal system has lost the infinitive, the synthetically formed future and perfect tenses as well as the optative mood. Many of these have been replaced by Periphrastic (analytical) forms.

Plato

Plato (428 – 348 BC) Greek philosopher who was the pupil of Socrates and the teacher of Aristotle – and one of the most influential figures in ‘western’ thought. He founded what is said to be the first university – his Academy (near Athens) in around 385 BC. Plato’s early works (dialogues) provide much of what we know of Socrates (470 – 399BC).



Reference: 

BinusMaya , PPT Human Philosophical Reflections 1. 

Arts

What Art is?

I could tell you that art plays a large part in making our lives infinitely rich. Imagine, just for a minute, a world without art! (You may think "So what?" but please consider the impact that lack of graphics would have on your favorite video game.) Art stimulates different parts of our brains to make us laugh or incite us to riot, with a whole gamut of emotions in between. Art gives us a way to be creative and express ourselves. For some people, art is the entire reason they get out of bed in the morning. You could say "Art is something that makes us more thoughtful and well-rounded humans."On the other hand, art is such a large part of our everyday lives that we may hardly even stop to think about it. Look at the desk or table where you are, right this minute. Someone designed that. It is art. Your shoes are art. Your coffee cup is art. All functional design, well done, is art. So, you could say "Art is something that is both functional and (hopefully) aesthetically pleasing to our eyes."You might say "Art is in a constant state of change, Learn from the best instructors. Watch anytime, anywhere, forever.

so nobody can really pin down what it is." The constant change part is true, but the not pinning it down part is going to get you a bad grade. It may even raise a comment or two about your being some sort of wisenheimer. Don't go this route.You might even say "Art is subjective, and means something different to every single person on earth." This, too, is the truth. I would caution against this approach, however, as it would require a stack of paper from here to the moon to cite all of your 6.8 billion references.Now, everything just stated has elements of truth, but is largely based on opinion. My opinion is, frankly, useless in your paper-writing endeavor. Form your own opinions (that should be the reason you are receiving an education, after all), and be sure to sprinkle them in your answer.

Alright, lets just now talk about what art is. What is it for me? Or What is it for you? Every people have a different definition about art. It depends on what you actually used it for.. But I can say art is world. All of a part on this earth is Art.

Many example of art, but I can tell the basic that maybe everybody knew are:

1.     Dance

Dancing is something that I really like to do since I was a kid. I dance a lot and that’s mean I’d been doing art since I was a little. I didn’t know what art was, but yeah unconsciously I did it and I love it.

Picture. 1 Balinese Dance 

2.     Singing

Everybody singing right? But did they know that that is kind of art? Maybe so. What do you feel after singing? it makes us can expressed our feeling and make it better. The power of a song. it can makes us sad, happy, guilty, and thats what Art does.

Picture 2. Happy Singing

3.     Painting

Painting is something fun for some people. Me? Kind of. I cant paint that’s why im not really like it at all. But that’s art. And me? I only can be the lovers. When I saw painting, I see something on it. A peace. Of course someone who made it means something he wanna tell. And that’s what arts do. Art is for telling you how we fell and then create it as something different but still in the same meaning. 

Picture 3. Paint 

There is a lot example of art. This world is full of art. And so a world without art is no world.

REFERENCES:

http://arthistory.about.com/cs/reference/f/what_is_art.htm

HINDUISM

Introduction

tReligion is defined, according to Wallace, as belief and ritual concerned with supernatural beings, powers, and forces.

tSo defined, religion is a cultural universal.

tNeanderthal mortuary remains provide the earliest evidence of what probably was religious activity.

Religious Practitioners and Types

tWallace defined religion as consisting of all a society’s cult institutions (rituals and associated beliefs), and developed four categories from this.

tShamanic religions shamans are part-time religious intermediaries who may act as curers—these religions are most characteristic of foragers.

tCommunal religions have shamans, community rituals, multiple nature gods, and are more characteristic of food producers than foragers.

tOlympian religions first appeared with states, have full-time religious specialists whose organization may mimic the states, have potent anthropomorphic gods who may exist as a pantheon.

tMonotheistic religions have all the attributes of Olympian religions, except that the pantheon of gods is subsumed under a single eternal, omniscient, omnipotent, and omnipresent being.

Religious Practitioners and Types

Anthony F. C. Wallace’s typology of religions.

Hindu and Bali

Bali is an intensely Hindu community, perhaps because it is the sole Hindu majority district in an otherwise Muslim country. Hinduism has not just survived here, it has thrived, unscathed by the tumultuous events of India's history over the last thousand years. Though elements of Balinese Hinduism are unique in all the world, most of the daily life of Balinese Hindus is easily recognizable--the rituals, culture, traditions, rites of passage, etc. The main city, Denpasar, is a major tourist destination, but many Hindus live in "custom villages" run in a wonderfully traditional manner.

Guides, attired in colorful Balinese traditional dress, greeted the tourists at the airport, their hands in namaskar, with, "Om swastiastu." It means "May God shower grace upon you;" and that's how I felt. Most of hotels took us past huge sculptures with scenes from the Mahabharata and Bhagavad Gita. The hotel clerk, with the charming, likewise greeted guesses with "Om swastiastu," and said goodbye with "Om shanti, shanti, shanti"--"peace, peace, peace." Every subsequent meeting began and ended with such blessings.

In some ways, Balinese Hinduism reflects a deeper philosophic understanding and a fuller incorporation into daily life than found in India. For example, here cremations are not an occasion for sorrow and mourning, but festive celebrations of the soul's passing on to a better world. Balinese Hindus perform Trikal Sandhya, reciting the Gayatri Mantra and other Sanskrit slokas every day at 6am, noon and 6pm--a practice found in India among brahmins. A third example is Nyepi, the Day of Silence in which the island comes to a complete halt; even the electricity is shut off. Hindus stay indoors, praying and fasting. No vehicles are on the roads, the airport is closed and tourists must remain in their hotels. I cannot imagine such an observance taking place in secular India!

A Balinese Hindu's love for his religion is clearly evident in his home. Each one I visited had an open-air temple, often larger than the main living area. In India, in the huge houses of rich Hindus, I have seen at most a small room used for a temple; in a middle-class home, the temple might be merely a four-foot by four-foot space partitioned off, as an afterthought, from a drawing room, bedroom or kitchen. Every Balinese home temple I saw was well maintained, with flower offerings being made two or three times a day. 

I was becoming completely enthralled with the lifestyle. Religious, kind and gentle though Bali's Hindus are, this is a land of meat eaters. Not a single vegetarian main course was available at any of the six restaurants in the Sanur Beach Hotel where I was staying. I took a ride in the evening in a fruitless effort to find a vegetarian restaurant nearby. Finally, I settled for toast and jam with hot chocolate milk back at the hotel. Eventually, with the help of friends, I located the few vegetarian restaurants Denpasar has to offer, but food remained a struggle throughout my stay. Even the sweets were often nonvegetarian. I returned to India a few kilos lighter.

Many people have studied the religion and culture of Bali, and reached a variety of conclusions, nearly all based on an academic outsider's point of view. I've also come to Bali to give an account, but do not intend to impose any particular point of view. The people I interviewed will speak for themselves and you, the reader, may draw your own conclusions. That said, let's experience Bali and Hindu!

Reference:

Powerpoint Binusmaya slides 4, 19 and 20

http://www.hinduismtoday.com/modules/smartsection/item.php?itemid=5267